On a bright spring day in Paris, I stood inside Notre-Dame Cathedral before the 2019 fire,
gazing up at the soaring vaults and kaleidoscopic stained glass windows. Sunlight streamed
through the rose window, casting rainbow patterns across stone floors worn smooth by millions
of footsteps over eight centuries. A tour guide nearby was explaining to a group of American
tourists how the cathedral was built.
“The most amazing thing, ” she said, “is that they constructed this during the Dark Ages, when
people were supposedly living in ignorance and filth.”
The tourists nodded, impressed that such a magnificent structure could emerge from what they
assumed was a primitive time. This reaction reveals one of history’s most persistent and
pervasive myths, the idea that the medieval period, spanning roughly a thousand years from the
fall of Rome to the Renaissance, was an era of intellectual darkness, scientific stagnation, and
cultural poverty.
This characterization is not just wrong, it’s almost completely backward
The Myth vs. The Reality
When most people think of the Middle Ages, they conjure images largely shaped by Hollywood,
video games, and poorly written history textbooks: peasants wallowing in mud, witch burnings
on every corner, brutal knights oppressing the masses, and a superstitious population cowering
in fear of both religious authorities and natural phenomena they couldn’t comprehend. In this
popular conception, the medieval period represents a tragic interruption between the glories of
classical antiquity and the brilliant awakening of the Renaissance.
This narrative is so deeply embedded in our cultural consciousness that we rarely question it. The
term “medieval” itself has become shorthand for backward, primitive, or barbaric, as in “that
country has medieval laws” or “their medical care is stuck in the Dark Ages.”
Yet historians who specialize in the period have been telling a very different story for decades.
Far from being a time of ignorance and stagnation, the Middle Ages were characterized by
remarkable innovation, intellectual vigor, and cultural achievement. The millennium between
the 5th and 15th centuries saw the birth of universities, the development of complex
philosophical systems, revolutionary architectural techniques, crucial technological innovations,
and vibrant artistic traditions.
“The myth of the Dark Ages is perhaps the most pervasive historical misconception in popular
culture, ” explains Dr. Eleanor Janega, a medieval historian at the London School of Economics
whom I interviewed for this book. “It’s frustrating because we’re not talking about minor details
being wrong, we’re talking about an entire millennium of human achievement being casually
dismissed as a wasteland.”
How the “Dark Ages” Myth Was Born
To understand how this distortion took root, we need to examine its origins in Renaissance selfpromotion and Enlightenment propaganda. The story begins with the Italian poet and scholar
Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374).
Petrarch, an early humanist with a passion for classical Roman literature, lamented what he saw
as a decline in Latin literary style since the fall of Rome. He described the period between
ancient Rome and his own time as a “dark age” specifically for Latin writing and classical
learning. His perspective was narrow and specific, focused on literary style rather than broader
intellectual or cultural achievements.
But Petrarch’s limited literary critique evolved into something much broader in the hands of later
Renaissance thinkers. By the 15th and 16th centuries, scholars and artists were actively
promoting the idea that they were part of a dramatic “rebirth” (renaissance) of classical learning
and arts after centuries of darkness.
This framing served their interests perfectly. By portraying the medieval period as an intellectual
wasteland, Renaissance thinkers could position themselves as the heroic restorers of classical
wisdom and artistic excellence. Their own achievements seemed more impressive when
contrasted with an allegedly barren preceding era.
The distortion intensified during the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Enlightenment philosophers like Voltaire were often hostile to organized religion and feudal
systems. They found it convenient to portray the medieval period, when the Catholic Church
wielded significant influence and feudalism was the dominant political structure in Europe, as an
age of superstition and oppression.
Edward Gibbon’s influential work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(1776-1789) further cemented this view, characterizing the medieval period as a tragic fall from
the rationality and sophistication of Rome. Gibbon famously blamed Christianity for Rome’s
decline, writing that the empire had been “subverted by the introduction of a foreign
superstition.”
By the 19th century, this negative portrayal of the Middle Ages had become standard in
historical writing, education, and popular culture. Victorian writers romanticized certain aspects
of medieval life (particularly chivalry and Gothic architecture) while still accepting the broader
narrative that medieval people were intellectually primitive compared to the ancients or to
modern Europeans.
“The term ‘Dark Ages’ reveals more about the biases of the people who coined it than about the
medieval period itself, ” notes Dr. Matthew Gabriele, professor of medieval studies at Virginia
Tech. “It was a rhetorical weapon used to elevate certain periods and denigrate others, not an
accurate historical description.”
The Medieval Intellectual Revolution
When we look at what was actually happening during the so-called “Dark Ages, ” the contrast
with the popular myth becomes stark. Far from abandoning classical learning, medieval scholars
preserved, translated, and built upon the knowledge of the ancient world.
The Birth of Universities
One of the most significant medieval innovations was the university, an institution that continues
to shape intellectual life today. The first universities emerged in Europe during the 11th and 12th
centuries, beginning with the University of Bologna (founded in 1088), the University of Paris
(c. 1150), Oxford University (c. 1096), and Cambridge University (1209).
These weren’t small or insignificant institutions. By the 13th century, the University of Paris had
approximately 10, 000 students, an extraordinary number for a medieval city. Universities
quickly became centers of intellectual debate and discovery, with standardized curricula, degree
programs, and academic freedom that would be recognizable to modern students and professors.
The medieval university curriculum was rigorous and comprehensive, beginning with the
trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music) before advancing to specialized studies in theology, law, or medicine. Students engaged
in complex debates, wrote sophisticated analyses, and grappled with profound philosophical
questions.
During my research for this book, I examined student notes from 13th-century Oxford that
contained detailed astronomical calculations, advanced mathematical problems, and
sophisticated logical arguments. These weren’t the scribblings of superstitious primitives but the
work of sharp minds engaged with complex intellectual challenges.
Scientific Inquiry and Discovery
The notion that scientific thinking was abandoned during the Middle Ages is perhaps the most
egregious aspect of the “Dark Ages” myth. In reality, medieval scholars made significant
contributions to what we would now call science, particularly in optics, astronomy, medicine,
and natural philosophy.
Roger Bacon (c. 1219-1292), a Franciscan friar and Oxford scholar, advocated for experimental
science and empirical methods centuries before the so-called Scientific Revolution. His works on
optics advanced understanding of reflection, refraction, and the properties of lenses, laying
groundwork for later developments in astronomy and vision science.
Nicole Oresme (c. 1320-1382) developed early concepts of coordinate geometry, proposed the
daily rotation of the Earth on its axis, and made important contributions to mechanics and
monetary theory. His work on the mathematics of motion influenced later scientists, including
Galileo.
Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), a German Benedictine abbess, produced detailed works on
natural history and medicine, documenting hundreds of plants and their medicinal uses based on
empirical observation. Her medical writings described diseases and treatments with remarkable
accuracy for her time.
“Medieval science wasn’t identical to modern science, ” explains Dr. Seb Falk, a historian of
medieval astronomy at Cambridge University whom I interviewed. “But it was far from the
superstitious fumbling portrayed in popular culture. Medieval scholars developed sophisticated
instruments, conducted careful observations, created mathematical models to explain natural
phenomena, and engaged in rigorous debate about their findings.”
The medieval period also saw crucial technological innovations: mechanical clocks, eyeglasses,
advanced water mills, improved agricultural techniques, and early printing methods all emerged
during these supposedly “dark” centuries.
Medicine and Healthcare
Medieval medicine combines elements that modern observers find both familiar and alien. While
certain medical practices were based on outdated theories (like the four humors), medieval
physicians also developed surprisingly sophisticated approaches to healthcare.
By the 12th century, the medical school at Salerno in Italy had developed detailed anatomical
knowledge and surgical techniques. Medical texts from the period describe procedures for setting
bones, suturing wounds, and even basic forms of anesthesia using opium and other plantderived substances.
Medieval hospitals, often run by religious orders, provided care for the sick throughout Europe.
The Hospital of St. John in Bruges, the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris, and St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in
London (founded in 1123 and still operating today) all provided medical treatment, basic
nursing care, and hospice services for the dying.
While wandering through the Museo della Storia della Medicina in Rome, I was struck by the
complexity of medieval medical instruments: specialized surgical tools, gynecological devices,
and anatomical illustrations that revealed a much more sophisticated understanding of the human
body than the “Dark Ages” stereotype would suggest.
Architectural and Engineering Marvels
Perhaps the most visible refutation of the “Dark Ages” myth stands in plain sight across Europe:
the soaring Gothic cathedrals that represent some of the most complex and ambitious
engineering projects in human history.
Durham Cathedral, with its revolutionary ribbed vaults (completed by 1133), solved structural
problems that had limited architectural possibilities for centuries. The Cathedral of Notre-Dame
in Paris, Chartres Cathedral, and countless other Gothic structures demonstrate mathematical
precision, engineering innovation, and aesthetic sophistication that would be remarkable in any
era.
Medieval master builders developed the flying buttress, pointed arch, and ribbed vault,
innovations that allowed them to create unprecedentedly tall, light-filled spaces. These weren’t
lucky accidents but the results of careful experimentation, mathematical calculation, and
engineering insight.
“When people call the medieval period ‘the Dark Ages, ‘ I just point to Chartres Cathedral, ” says
architectural historian Dr. Robert Bork. “Nothing about that building, from its structural
engineering to its precisely calculated proportions to its sophisticated symbolism, suggests a
culture wallowing in ignorance. These were not primitive builders but masters of a complex,
mathematically precise craft.”
The engineering achievements extended beyond religious buildings. Medieval Europe saw the
construction of sophisticated castles, city walls, bridges, and water management systems. The
Arthurian-era Tintagel Castle in Cornwall features a land bridge constructed with such precision
that the two sides, built from opposite cliffs, met perfectly in the middle, no small feat without
modern surveying equipment.
A Connected World: Global Exchange in the Middle Ages
Another persistent misconception about medieval Europe is that it was isolated, cut off from the
broader world and ignorant of other cultures and knowledge. This couldn’t be further from the
truth. The medieval period was characterized by extensive networks of trade, diplomacy, and
intellectual exchange that connected Europe to Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
The Islamic world was experiencing its Golden Age during much of the European Middle Ages.
Centers of learning in Baghdad, Cairo, Córdoba, and elsewhere preserved and expanded upon
classical knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.
These advancements didn’t remain isolated from Europe. Through trade routes, the Crusades
(despite their violence), diplomatic missions, and centers of translation like Toledo in Spain,
European scholars gained access to Arabic texts, including preserved Greek works that had been
lost in Western Europe and original contributions by Muslim scholars.
The mathematical works of Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780-850) introduced algebra (the word itself
comes from the Arabic “al-jabr”) and Arabic numerals to Europe, revolutionizing mathematics.
The medical canon of Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037) served as the standard medical text in
European universities well into the 17th century. The optical studies of Ibn al-Haytham
(Alhazen, 965-1040) profoundly influenced European understanding of vision and light.
Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire preserved and developed Greek learning throughout the
medieval period. When Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, an event often used to
mark the end of the Middle Ages, Byzantine scholars brought their manuscripts and knowledge
to Western Europe, contributing to (but not solely causing) the Renaissance.
The Black Death, often cited as a quintessentially medieval disaster, actually demonstrates how
connected the medieval world was. The plague spread along established trade routes that
connected Europe to Central Asia and China, evidence of robust international networks rather
than isolation.
Daily Life: More Complex Than You Think
Popular depictions of medieval daily life often show peasants living in filth, nobles engaging in
constant brutality, and everyone caught in a miasma of superstition and misery. The reality was
far more nuanced.
Medieval people at all social levels had complex lives with moments of joy, creativity, and
leisure alongside the undeniable hardships of pre-industrial life. Peasants weren’t mindless serfs
but active participants in village life, with their own customs, legal rights, and communal
traditions. Village records reveal sophisticated systems for managing common resources,
resolving disputes, and organizing labor.
Archaeological evidence from medieval villages shows that ordinary people’s diets were often
more varied and nutritious than commonly portrayed. Analysis of skeletal remains indicates that
many medieval people were of similar height to modern Europeans (contrary to the stereotype of
universally stunted, malnourished peasants).
“The idea that everyone in the Middle Ages was constantly miserable is simply wrong, ” explains
archaeologist Dr. Carenza Lewis, former presenter of the TV series Time Team. “Yes, life
could be hard by modern standards, and people lacked many conveniences we take for granted.
But they also had strong community bonds, regular festivals and celebrations, and many small
pleasures that historical accounts and archaeological evidence reveal.”
Medieval people enjoyed music, dancing, games, sports, and other entertainments. They
celebrated seasonal festivals with enthusiasm, appreciated beauty, fell in love, and found
meaning in their lives, just as humans have throughout history.
While hygiene standards were different from our own, the stereotype of universal filth is
exaggerated. Medieval texts contain detailed advice on personal cleanliness, and public
bathhouses were common in towns and cities until concerns about plague led to their decline in
the later Middle Ages.
Persistent Myths About Medieval Life
Beyond the broader “Dark Ages” narrative, numerous specific myths about medieval life persist
in popular culture. Let’s address some of the most common:
Myth: Medieval People Thought the Earth Was Flat
This is completely false. As we saw in our chapter on Columbus, educated medieval people
knew the Earth was round. This knowledge, inherited from ancient Greek astronomy, was
standard in medieval universities. Scholars like John Sacrobosco (c. 1195-1256) wrote popular
astronomical texts that explicitly described the Earth as a sphere, providing multiple forms of
evidence for its roundness.
Medieval artwork, including maps and depictions of the cosmos, routinely showed the Earth as
a sphere. The 13th-century philosophical text On the Sphere by Sacrobosco was a standard university textbook that clearly explained the spherical nature of the Earth and was copied
hundreds of times before the invention of the printing press.
Myth: Everyone Died Young in the Middle Ages
While average life expectancy was lower than today, this statistic is heavily skewed by high
infant and child mortality. Those who survived childhood had a reasonable chance of living into
their 50s, 60s, or even 70s.
Medieval records reveal many people who lived long lives. Geoffrey Chaucer died at 60, King
Edward I at 68, Eleanor of Aquitaine at 82, and the philosopher Roger Bacon reportedly at 78
or 79. These weren’t unusual anomalies but examples of normal lifespans for those who survived
childhood diseases and avoided fatal accidents or violence.
Myth: The Church Prohibited Scientific Inquiry
The relationship between medieval religion and scientific thought was complex, but the idea that
the Church simply prohibited scientific inquiry is false. Most medieval scientists were
themselves clergy, and many scientific advancements were pursued within religious institutions.
The Church established and supported universities where natural philosophy (science) was
taught. The medieval university curriculum included astronomy, mathematics, optics, and
medicine. While certain specific ideas could be controversial if they directly contradicted
religious doctrine, the general pursuit of knowledge about the natural world was encouraged
rather than suppressed.
Myth: Medieval People Rarely Bathed
Contemporary sources suggest otherwise. Medieval literature contains numerous references to
bathing practices, and archaeological excavations have uncovered sophisticated bathhouses in
many medieval towns. Personal hygiene was valued, though standards and practices differed
from modern ones.
Medical texts from the period recommended regular washing, and medieval people used soap
(made from animal fat and lye) for cleansing. Wealthy households had designated bathing areas,
while public bathhouses served common people in towns and cities.
Myth: Women Had No Rights or Education in Medieval Society
While medieval society was certainly patriarchal by modern standards, women’s experiences
were far more varied than often portrayed. Women ran businesses as brewers, textile merchants,
and artisans. They managed estates when husbands were absent, and some, like Eleanor of
Aquitaine, wielded significant political power Women’s educational opportunities, though limited compared to men’s, existed throughout the
medieval period. Nunneries were centers of female learning where women studied literature,
music, and sometimes more advanced subjects. Figures like Hildegard of Bingen, Christine de
Pizan, and Julian of Norwich produced significant intellectual and literary works.
Legal records show that medieval women owned property, participated in courts, and had
certain protected rights that varied by region and time period. The stereotype of completely
powerless medieval women doesn’t match historical evidence.
Why the Myth Matters
The “Dark Ages” myth isn’t just wrong, it’s harmful to our understanding of history and human
development. By dismissing a thousand years of human achievement as a benighted age of
ignorance, we miss crucial insights about our past and distort our understanding of historical
change.
This misconception creates an artificial rupture in the story of Western civilization, suggesting
that progress occurs through dramatic “revolutions” and “rebirths” rather than through the
continuous, cumulative development that actually characterizes most human advancement. The
Renaissance built upon medieval foundations rather than emerging miraculously from a dark
void.
The myth also betrays a deeply presentist bias, the tendency to judge past eras by modern
standards and find them wanting. All historical periods have their achievements and failures,
their wisdom and blindness. By looking at the past with nuance rather than through simplistic
stereotypes, we gain a richer understanding of human possibility.
“When we dismiss the Middle Ages as ‘dark, ‘ we’re not just getting history wrong, ” explains Dr.
Ada Palmer, a Renaissance historian at the University of Chicago. “We’re missing an
opportunity to understand how societies change and develop over time. The seeds of the modern
world, from universities to banking systems to early democratic concepts, were planted in
medieval soil.”
Rethinking a Thousand Years of History
If the Middle Ages weren’t “dark, ” how should we understand this complex millennium of
human experience? Rather than defining the period by what it wasn’t (not Roman, not
Renaissance), we can appreciate it for what it was: a dynamic era of cultural evolution,
intellectual exploration, and social development.
The medieval period saw Europe transform from a post-Roman patchwork of kingdoms into the
foundation of the modern state system. It witnessed the development of vernacular literature that
still speaks to us today, from Dante’s Divine Comedy to Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. It created
architectural and artistic achievements that remain among humanity’s most awe-inspiring
creations.During these centuries, European society developed legal concepts we still rely on, created
financial systems that evolved into modern banking, established educational institutions that
continue to shape intellectual life, and built cities whose layouts and buildings still define many
European urban centers.
None of this suggests a “dark” age of stagnation and ignorance. Instead, it reveals a complex,
vibrant period of human history with its own values, achievements, and worldview, one that
deserves to be understood on its own terms rather than through the distorting lens of Renaissance
and Enlightenment propaganda.
Key Insights from Chapter 4
Common myths about the Middle Ages, that people thought the Earth was flat, that the
Church prohibited science, that everyone died young, are contradicted by historical
evidence.
In our next chapter, we’ll explore another persistent historical myth, the idea that witches were
routinely hunted and burned throughout the Middle Ages. The reality of historical witch
persecutions is both more complex and more recent than many people realize, revealing how
easily historical misconceptions can distort our understanding of the past.
The concept of the “Dark Ages” was largely invented by Renaissance thinkers to glorify
their own era and further developed by Enlightenment philosophers hostile to medieval
religious and political systems.
Far from abandoning classical knowledge, medieval scholars preserved ancient learning
while making their own significant contributions to science, mathematics, medicine,
and philosophy.
The first European universities were founded during the Middle Ages, creating
institutional structures for higher education that continue today.
Medieval architects and engineers developed revolutionary techniques that made possible
some of history’s most impressive structures, including Gothic cathedrals.
Medieval Europe was connected to global networks of trade and knowledge exchange,
particularly with the Islamic world and Byzantium.
Everyday life in medieval Europe was more complex, hygienic, and sophisticated than
commonly portrayed in popular culture.